Existentialism in Applied Sport Psychology
a paper from my first year as ph.d student at Florida State University
Existentialism in Sport Psychology Practice
The purpose of this paper is to examine existentialism in sport psychology practice, how it is and has been used by sport psychology consultants, what can be gained from incorporating it into consulting, and the potential barriers or issues. A brief introduction to existentialism and existential psychology will start things off, followed by a discussion of what existential sport psychology looks like in light of the limited amount of publication in the field.
Existentialism
What does it mean to be an existentialist? While we can find pieces of the existential philosophy throughout much of human history, we tend to cite Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813—1855) as the father of modern existentialism (May, 1969). Kierkegaard wanted to get away from the abstraction-focused climate of the time, and get back the authentic human experience of everyday life (Ronkainen, Tikkanen, Littlewood, & Nesti, 2015). The term “existence” is derived from the Latin word exisistere, which means “to emerge,” referring here to emerging and becoming in existence (May, 1969).
What seems to be shared by most modern existential philosophers is the idea that existence precedes essence (Sartre, 1946/2007). Essences are constructs that stand above existences (such as humans or chairs), and do not exist themselves. Explanations, ethics, morals, principles, and truths are examples of the endless list of universal essences (May, 1969). The relation between existence and essence can be shown by example: Imagine that you want to build a chair. To build this chair, you must have some idea of the purpose (essence) of a chair. That is, the essence (i.e. purpose) naturally precedes its existence. This is different for humans, who are “thrown” into existence in an objectively meaningless world, with no a priori essences (i.e. purposes or morals) to live by (Sartre, 1946/2007, Yalom, 2002).
The idea that existence precedes essence is related to the notion of the Absurd, which refers to the existential “fact” that the world is objectively meaningless. The term “absurd” is used because we are presented with the dilemma of continuing to exist—to act—in spite of an utterly meaningless world (Camus, 1955; Sartre, 1946/2007). According to Camus (1955), the only serious philosophical problem we face in our life, is suicide. Basically, the rationale behind this is that if existence is objectively pointless, then why exist at all?
The existential philosophers encourage us to persevere in existence in spite of this absurdity. They claim that we are free to create the meaning of our own existence, and challenge us to do just that (Sartre, 1946/2007). Choice is another important existential idea. Our “existential burden” is always having to choose, as not choosing is a defining choice in itself (May, 1969; Sartre, 1946/2007). To choose is the expression of our existential freedom (Ravizza, 2002), and this connection is assumed based on ideas of the absence of human nature and determinism (Sartre, 2007). Deviating slightly from Sartre’s (1946/2007) idea of free will is May’s (1969) idea of situated-freedom, where we are free to choose “within the limits of our given world” (p. 13). This accounts for environmental or other uncontrollable factors in our lives. Anguish (or anxiety) is the feeling that accompanies the recognition that we are responsible for our choices—that my choices are examples set for humanity and that we are giving our choices value purely by choosing (Sartre, 1946/2007). Denying this responsibility is simply masking the anguish—it does not make the anguish go away (Yalom, 2002).
Existential Psychology
Most existential psychology perspectives are based on the philosophies of Kierkegaard, Heidegger, and Jaspers (Ronkainen et al., 2015). Generally, what they have in common is the dissatisfaction with the “loss of mystery, transcendence and self-reflection in the modern rationalistic ordering of being” (Ronkainen et al., 2015, p. 255).
From the 500-mile view, existential psychology relies on a few existential ‘givens’—or facts—of existence (May, 1969). The most fundamental givens involve the following ideas: (a) we are ultimately alone and (b) free to create our lives as we will; (c) we all must die; and (d) life has no obvious meaning. In short, these are the givens of isolation, freedom, and meaninglessness (Yalom 1989; 2002). This last given is connected to the existential goal (depending on the branch of existentialism) involving satisfying a curiosity for the meaning of life (Allport, as cited in May, 1969). When are we confronted with these existential givens? Yalom (2002) claims that we come into contact with them when we set aside—or screen out—our ordinary/everyday concerns of life. This may be brought about by experiencing certain extraordinary life-events, what Jaspers called boundary situations (Schrag, 1971). Examples of such could be a death in the family, a significant career transition, or some other major life event. What are the consequences? A possibility is that we fall into despair (Yalom, 2002). However, confronting and working through this existential despair is essential in living authentically, where our self has “taken hold of its own way” (Heidegger, 1962, p. 167). Ronkainen et al. (2015) summarize Heidegger, Kierkegaard, and Jaspers’ notion of authenticity as “to be authentic means to reflect and take a stand on one’s existence” (p. 256).
Related to existential despair is the experience of anxiety. May (1977) teases apart what is known as neurotic and normal anxiety, with normal anxiety being the feeling that accompanies facing up to the givens of existence. On the other hand, neurotic anxiety is what accompanies the inauthentic life in which we deny our existential responsibility to choose (May, 1977).
Death—and death anxiety—should be noted, as it plays a significant role in existential psychology. It is believed that death anxiety is always present within us, and that we tend to shield ourselves from it (May, 1969). We do this in many ways, but a common way is by adopting a belief in the afterlife, or by somehow striving to leave an everlasting (immortalizing) mark on the world (Yalom, 2002). The main reason why our philosophy of death is key is that it deeply infiltrates our philosophy of life (May, 1969; Yalom, 2002). According to Feifel, it is what gives us our individuality, as she notes that “life is not comprehended truly or lived fully unless the idea of death is grappled with honestly” (as cited in May, 1969, p. 70). Thus, death tends to be talked about and dealt with openly in existential therapy, although it is rarely brought up as a specific topic of discussion by the therapist (Yalom, 1989).
Applied Existential Psychology
Existential psychotherapy has already been briefly mentioned. Despite approaches varying according to the therapist, it has been defined as “a dynamic therapeutic approach that focuses on concerns rooted in existence” (Yalom, 2002, p. xvi). Existential psychology—compared to other branches of psychology—has kept strong ties to its philosophical roots in both theory and practice (Nesti, 2004; Ronkainen et al., 2015). More than a specific school of thought, it is viewed as a general attitude toward human beings and therapy (May, 1969). For instance, Maslow does not consider himself an existentialist, but does however resonate with and adopt some of the relevant philosophical ideas (as cited in May, 1969). Specific aspects will be discussed next.
The Therapeutic Alliance
“It’s the relationship that heals, the relationship that heals, the relationship that heals—my professional rosary” (Yalom, 1989, p. 91). Existential therapy is indeed relationship-driven, rather than theory-driven (Yalom, 2002). For instance, the existential therapist allows herself to deeply care about the patient and is not afraid to show it. She is honest, and has a high degree of empathy and unconditional positive regard (Yalom, 2002).
Compared to client or even person-centered therapy, the focus is on “two-persons-existing-in-a-world” (May, 1969 p. 73). The here-and-now—the current reality for us—is essential (Yalom, 2002). This does not at all mean that problems from the outside world are not important; it simply means that these can only be truly understood—and dealt with—if the context is also considered. Yalom (2002) insists that if the therapeutic setting is spontaneous enough, whatever the patient is struggling with in the real world will develop naturally in the therapeutic “microcosm.” In other words, the relationship that develops between patient and therapist will tend to mimic other important relationships or, at least, have aspects of how the patient tends to interact with others. This is where the here-and-now aspect of existential therapy is important. For instance, if it is apparent that the client has a certain pattern of relating to people, the therapist initiates a discussion of his or her own experience of the way the client acts—giving first-hand experience—and then ask the client how this experience fits with other relationships outside the therapeutic setting. That is, the relationship between client and therapist is the driving force of change (Yalom, 2002).
It is worth keeping in mind that while it is a relationship-driven therapy, this does not mean that other “techniques” cannot be useful. For instance, Yalom (2002) is not afraid of analyzing, exploring, even searching for various explanations for a client’s behavior. The reason he allows it in therapy is because it can act as a means to an end, with the end being the development of the therapeutic relationship (Yalom, 2002). A secondary reason is that really anything is allowed in therapy, as long as it is reflected on at some point (Yalom, 2002).
Spontaneity and Confrontation
Allowing therapy to be spontaneous—as opposed to protocol driven—is another important aspect (May, 1969; Yalom, 2002). When therapy is spontaneous, the therapist allows the patient to decide where the session starts and where it goes. That is not to say that the therapist cannot ask the patient to go in a direction they feel may be useful. It simply means that the therapist allows the session to go in many different directions. Again, being spontaneous does not mean that technique cannot be used at all. However, technique should spring naturally from the relational encounter (Yalom, 2002).
Since the major existential concerns of death, aloneness, meaninglessness, and isolation are quite intense, it can take a provocative and confrontational style to have clients deal with these fundamental issues (May, 1969; Yalom, 1989). The degree of direction and confrontation can vary depending on the therapist, but it is only appropriate to use when accompanied by true empathy and presence (Nesti, 2004; Yalom, 1989). Thus, some required (or highly recommended) personal aspects of the therapist will be discussed next.
Personality
In the therapeutic setting, it is acknowledged that each person enters the relationship with a personality (person-to-person) rather than as two individuals or where only the client is allowed to be a whole person (Nesti, 2004; Yalom, 2002). The defining difference between an individual and a person, is that a person brings everything with her (i.e. history, humanity, flaws), whereas an individual is someone who brings only parts (i.e. a professional, dentist, doctor; Yalom, 2002). Although the client and therapist meet as equals (as in humanistic psychotherapy), it is recognized that there are differences between the two in that one person has sought the other out for help (Nesti, 2004).
First and foremost, the therapist must be authentic in the encounter. This goes hand in hand with spontaneity, since we are our most authentic selves when acting spontaneously (Nesti, 2004; Yalom, 2002). It is essential to have absolute presence and engagement in the other person’s existence—what Buber (1923/1970) called being Thou-oriented. This is where the therapist not only listens with the mind but with the heart and whole being (Gordon, 2011).
Phenomenology in Existential Therapy
In examining existential therapy and research, phenomenological theory and practice comes up again and again. Existential phenomenology is basically interested in describing human life as lived and experienced (Dale, 1996). It was first introduced in 1764 by J. H. Lambert (Müller, 2011) and developed into transcendental phenomenology by Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) for use within the social sciences (Eichberg, 2013). The development of existential phenomenology is credited to Heidegger (1889-1976), a student of Husserl, who was partially inspired by Kierkegaard (Dale, 1996). The key development here was his incorporation of ontology—or the interest in the nature of existence, being, becoming, and reality (Halák, et al., 2014; Heidegger 1996).
Phenomenological technique is to study things as they are (Müller, 2011), to take a “phenomenon as given” (May, 1969, p. 21). The phenomenon of study is “the meaning of the thing without which there is no such thing” (Halák, et al., 2014, p. 127). That is, phenomenological research is focused on the study of essences (Van Manen, 1990), or capturing the “structure and essence of a phenomenon” (Nesti, 2011, p. 290). The opposite of phenomenology would be the preoccupation with analyzing the client and trying to figure out the “whys and hows” of a problem (May, 1969, p. 74), which can cloud a true understanding of what the person is experiencing, as well as compromise authenticity on the part of the therapist.
Applied Existential Sport Psychology
When considering existential concerns such as choice, responsibility, isolation, and meaninglessness, it seems that existentialism may apply well to the mental aspect of sport (Ravizza, 2002). The field has been driven mostly by cognitive behavioral approaches, and often tends to be viewed as synonymous with MST, although over the years, there have been some efforts to broaden the field by incorporating theories such as reversal theory and humanistic approaches (Nesti, 2004). The last part of this review will look at existentialism applied in sport psychology practice, or Existential Sport Psychology (ESP)/Existential Sport Psychology Consulting (ESPC).
Some of the most well-known Existential Sport Psychology Consultants (ESPCs) who—in some shape or form—have incorporated existentialism and phenomenological existentialism in their applied practice, are Dr. Mark Nesti, Dr. Ken Ravizza, and Dr. Bob Rotella. Relevant aspects of their applied practices—along with other published work— will be discussed below.
Performance Enhancement
While ESPCs tend to emphasize that the most important task is to help the athlete develop self-knowledge (Corlett, 1996), we cannot get around the fact that performance enhancement is a key aspect of sport psychology (Ravizza, 2002). This is recognized by most ESPCs, no matter how strongly they have adopted the existential philosophy in their work. For instance, Nesti (2004) tends to incorporate more MST in the first sessions, and as the relationship develops, the use of MST decreases. That is, MST can be a good way to establish the relationship–to get to know one another (Nesti, 2004). He argues that while there may be many explanations for why athletes do not improve in—or are not satisfied with—their work with a sport psychologist, some well documented reasons involve poor adherence to MST, and interventions that are too generalized (Nesti, 2004).
While Nesti (2004) seems to enhance the performances of his athletes in a more indirect manner, Ravizza (2002) is more direct in his commitment to helping athletes establish a personal mission or purpose for what they do. That is, through developing this mission, he claims athletes will exert more effort (because they know why they are doing it) and perform better, because it gives the performance meaning. While helping athletes develop and clarify this mission is done through various means, most involve asking the athlete ‘why’ questions, to get to the core of why they are engaged in what they spend their lives doing (Ravizza, 2002).
The existential idea of “being” and “becoming” has relevant applications to performance enhancement as well (Maslow, as cited in May, 1969). That is, we need to be present in the moment (being), while also anticipating the next move to be executed (becoming; Ravizza, 2002). This idea relates to the notions of being present in the moment, being mindful, or keeping focus, which are components of other approaches such as mindfulness or CBT.
Meaning and the Absurdity of Sport
Sport is essentially a meaningless activity. We place unnecessary obstacles in our way, we create and follow unnecessary and meaningless rules. Yet, some dedicate their entire lives to it. These rules and obstacles are essential in order to create the structure of sport (Ravizza, 2002). The athlete must therefore create a personal meaning related to sport participation, both on a small and large scale (Ravizza, 2002). The meaning an athlete attributes to her competitive or elite career can impact enjoyment, commitment, and years spent competing (Nesti, 2004). An ESPC may be better equipped than others at helping the athlete create a personal meaning (Nesti, 2004), or mission (Ravizza, 2002). It is important to not impose a meaning onto the athlete, but simply assist the athlete in developing her own (Ronkainen et al., 2015). While no literature seems to have been published on the subject yet, it seems that common experiences such as burnout, amotivation, etc., may be positively impacted by working on developing a personal meaning, mission, or purpose in sport.
Existential Givens & Consulting
According to Nesti (2011), existential isolation is a common experience for high level athletes, and can arise after being cut from a team, after being injured, being forced to move clubs, etc. However, he argues that the sport psychology research has ignored what this experience involves for athletes, and what SPCs can do to help.
To whom do we attribute good and bad performances? Naturally, we often look to the athlete. We praise the athletes when things go well, and criticize them (sometimes harshly) when they do not (Ravizza, 2002). That is, personal responsibility for actions and choices is implied in the world of sport. At the same time, the current sports climate seems to be getting away from personal responsibility and accountability for decisions. For instance, athletes often try to give away their responsibility by developing a form of parent-child relationship with the coach, agent, manager, etc. (Ravizza, 2002).
What is being done in the field to address this? The ESPC will typically address the issue with the athlete and team, where responsibility for action and decision making is seen as a skill to be developed (Ravizza, 2002). In addition to work with athletes, coaching staff and others (such as managers) are also taught to ask athletes for their input, and to actually allow athletes to make decisions (Ravizza, 2002). This can foster a higher sense of accountability and ownership, and can increase team organization (Ravizza, 2002). The ESPC may also use moments of silence in the consulting setting, which gives the athlete an opportunity to reflect on—and possibly begin to accept—her existential freedom or free will (Nesti, 2011).
Characteristics of Applied Existential Sport Psychology
This is a person-centered, holistic approach, where the relationship is emphasized more than being able to design psychological skills interventions (Nesti, 2004). When athletes are asked what they value most in a consultant, they mention personal qualities such as understanding, genuine interest, and caring (Orlick & Partington, 1987). Coaches have also been found to value personal qualities of humility, authenticity, and integrity (Chandler, Eubank, Nesti, Tod, & Cable, 2016). Of course, these qualities sound a lot like the personal qualities emphasized in existential psychotherapy. The fact that it is a holistic approach has been found to be particularly beneficial for female athletes, since being viewed valuable as a person—rather than just an athlete—seems to be of higher importance than to male athletes (Ravizza, 2002). Consultants have also been found to emphasize a holistic approach when working with young athletes, as they recognize the importance of developing a variation of life skills, such as overcoming adversity in life, and handling the challenges that come with junior to senior level transitioning (Henriksen, Larsen, Storm, & Ryom, 2014).
The ESPC sets herself apart from others in that she always has to deal with reality in the athlete encounter (Nesti, 2004). What reality here refers to is the part of our lives that we do not need to “reflect upon, theorize about, or view as a project apart from ourselves” (Nesti, 2004, p. 112). While most other consultants or psychologists in general may engage in analyzing, theorizing, or hypothesizing while in an encounter, the ESPC recognizes that this leads her away from the athlete’s reality as lived, and is to be avoided (Nesti, 2004). By analyzing the individual in the session, a natural attitude is adopted, and the consultant will lose focus on the “real life lived by the person before us” (Nesti p. 112). Similar to the discussion of using technique in the encounter, we see that Yalom (2002) views analyzing and explanations as potentially useful, as long as we do not fool ourselves into believing that this will be the main drive for change. As mentioned earlier, he strongly believes that change is relationship-driven.
A positive outcome of developing strong relationships is that the athlete may respond better to criticism. If athletes feel that the consultant values them as people and not merely as athletes, they will be less likely to interpret criticisms as meaning they are worth less as people (Ravizza, 2002). This is also true for the relationship with the coach, where criticism may be more related to technique and performance (Ravizza, 2002).
The task of the ESPC of trying to refrain from imposing her own ideas (i.e. explanations or explicit advice) in the personal encounter is not an easy one (Nesti, 2004; Yalom, 2002). This is particularly the case when working with children or people with lower communication skills (Nesti, 2004). In this regard, Ravizza (2002) seems to be a bit more directive and solution focused, while still emphasizing the importance of letting the athlete choose and take responsibility for that choice.
As for personal approaches, Ravizza’s consulting philosophy in 2002 was based on educational and existential principles (and may have changed since). Nesti (2004) has created his own personal consulting style, which he calls “a person-centered approach with attitude.” (Nesti, 2004, p. 115). This approach is confrontational, coupled with a high degree of empathy, a dedication to being present in the moment, while refraining from giving directions and advice, analyzing, and theorizing (Nesti, 2004). He claims that this approach tends to be well received by athletes, but also that it works best when they are serious about their sport. Dr. Rotella’s most obvious tie to existentialism seems to be his view on how spirituality impacts athletes’ well-being and performance (Rotella, 2015). A brief discussion of sport-related spirituality will come next.
Spirituality in Sport Psychology
Many ESPCs mention the significant role spirituality can play in sport. Spirituality is broadly defined as “the world of values, beliefs, transcendence and making sense of our lives” (Ronkainen, et al., 2015, p. 255-256). Some ESPCs argue that spirituality can have a positive impact on both well-being and sport performance (Rotella, 2015), and can help the athlete find purpose in the sport participation, which then can sustain athletes as they experience adversity (Ravizza, 2002). Many SPCs claim that elements of spirituality often arise in consulting, so being able to adequately discuss this with athletes should only increase the value of the consultant (Watson & Nesti, 2005). Certain ‘critical moments’ in high-level sport, such as injury or deselection, are types of sports-related boundary moments that can change how we view our lives. Some research has found that questions of personal meaning and spirituality tend to come up more in consultation, after athletes have been confronted with retirement or career-ending injuries (Lavellee, Nesti, Borkoles, Cockerill, & Edge, 2002). In such cases, spirituality seems to be able to help the athlete deal with such moments productively (Nesti, 2004; Rotella, 2015).
Phenomenology in Existential Sport Psychology Practice
Some common techniques used in existential sport psychology practice (ESPP) are existential phenomenology (Dale, 1996), phenomenology (and phenomological interviewing), and gestalt therapy (Bednářová, 2009). One argument for using a phenomenological approach is that it helps bridge the gap between sport psychology theoretical research and applied work (Nesti, 2011; Van Manen, 1990). From an existential phenomenological approach, the athlete is seen as inseparable from her world. That is, the consultant must always keep in mind that “[e]ither the person is acting upon the world or the world is acting upon the person” (Dale, 1996, p. 309). What this also means is that the athlete isn’t seen as an isolated case. Even free will is from the phenomenological perspective a situated freedom, where the athlete is free to act given the situational framework (Dale, 1996).
Training in Existential Psychology for SPCs
Being able to deal adequately with topics such as personal meaning, authenticity, spirituality, and especially death, can be tough for anyone. Whether the training that SPCs currently receive prepares them for such things has been debated in the literature, and both counseling and clinical training has been criticized for not adequately preparing them to deal with existential concerns of the athlete (Nesti, 2004).
So where can SPCs find the proper training? Ronkainen et al. (2015) encourages future SPCs to get better trained in philosophically based approaches, so that the applied setting can properly accommodate dialogues on authenticity, spirituality, and personal meaning. This is echoed by Nesti (2011), who suggests that sport psychologists be exposed to the “underlying philosophical assumptions of different approaches in psychology” (p. 288). Ronkainen et al. (2015) also suggest that “quick fixes” should be avoided. They do not mention which approaches or professional philosophies tend to use quick fixes (although MST seems to be implied), but suggest holistic and person-centered approaches as appropriate training in dealing with athletes’ existential concerns.
Since existential psychology and psychotherapy is viewed by most practitioners as an attitude towards the human being rather than a separate approach, we as SPCs may be in luck. Because what this means is that “all” it takes to go from SPC to ESPC, is to dive into the writings of existential philosophy and psychology (Nesti, 2004). Unfortunately, little has yet been written in the specific area of ESP, but going back to the source readings (such as Kierkegaard, Sartre, Jaspers, Heidegger, or Merleau-Ponty), may be the first and most important step to take anyway (Yalom, 2002).
Reflection – Some Potential Problems
The most obvious problem here is that it may be very difficult for the SPC to adequately adopt some of the existential ways discussed in this paper. Being completely honest and authentic in the consultation can take a lot of practice, but a potentially detrimental barrier involves the aspect of trust in the therapeutic relationship. In existential psychotherapy, trust is a cornerstone in the therapeutic relationship. And since change is thought to be driven mainly through this relationship, complete trust between the two parties is absolutely essential (Yalom, 2002). So what happens in the consulting setting, where our main client may actually be the coach? Furthermore, the field being as solution-focused as it is, does it really fit well?
Another problem involves whether the athlete is ready or willing to deal with such issues. The existential approach demands a lot of self-reflection, and a willingness to understand oneself. A person-centered approach like ESP may not be the most effective when working with athletes who tend to perceive the sources of their problems as being outside themselves (Kontos & Arguello, 2005). Of course, one of the major aims in ESPC is to make the athlete take personal responsibility, so this argument may not be completely warranted. Other potential problems involve the amount of time needed for an existential approach to produce results, compared to more solution-focused approaches. Coaching staff may want something more concrete, and therefore may not welcome ESPC. They may be interested solely in performance enhancement, thereby not seeing the other—more holistic—benefits of ESPC.
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